501 version 15. Today 5G Core Networks use cloud-native network functions (CNF). 4. Let's explore the high-level why and how of private 5G network architecture. These will be examined and contrasted with traditional implementations, such as the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC). More precisely, flexible reconfiguration mechanisms can clean the containers and eliminate all the attack knowledge obtained by adversaries. In this regard, 5G mobile network architecture needs to be redesigned to Through new innovation in cloud-based packet core, seamless business-to-service provider network connections, automation advances, and a trusted secure infrastructure, the road to a profitable mobile network has never been clearer. For this reason, NFs are said to use Service-Based Interfaces (SBIs). It uses service-based interfaces between control-plane functions, while user-plane functions connect over point-to-point links. , RRM, admission and connection control, and Quality of Service (QoS) flow management. The 5G NG Core consists of several Network Functions (NF) that each serve specific functions in the 5G network architecture. The relevant basics of NG-RAN are also covered. Feb 27, 2019 · The most essential new core network concepts in 5G are thus the separation of user plane and control plane, network slicing, and service-based architecture (SBA). 2. 5G core network, called the cloud-native 5G core or 5G CN, uses a service-based architecture (SBA) which can facilitate advanced use cases through technologies like network slicing. Service-Based Architecture (SBA) is an evolution of this approach and it's been adopted by 5G System. It then explains the 5G network architecture and 5GC protocols, discusses session management and 5GC policies, explains network slicing, 5GC security, EPC Interworking, and roaming, before closing with a look at 5GC services. The 5G core network functions connect with standard 4G and 5G standalone radio access networks (RANs) to provide high performance, low latency, and Typical 5G system network architecture consists of Core Network, Access Network and User Equipment, this part is a bit like previous generations which we already have such domains. Deploy trusted, cloud native 5G technology from the network through B/OSS applications. The interface Feb 1, 2017 · 5G network architecture will include new functional blocks and interfaces defined by 3GPP. In this book excerpt, learn the network functions and services 5G core networks will enable, as well as new, cloud-based capabilities of which 5G can take advantage. AMF (Access and Mobility Management Function): Jul 27, 2018 · Technology expectations for 5G. The biggest difference between 4G and 5G is latency. . Feb 23, 2023 · 5G SA involves a new 5G packet core architecture, which means that 5G services can be deployed without pre-existing 4G LTE equipment in the network. 3GPP 5G Standard 5G Core Network Design Principle Figure 2-1. In this document, NR architecture options, 5G key services, 5G SA migration path Jul 15, 2019 · This article is dedicated to describing the main components of the 5G Core Network (5GC) as defined by the 3GPP. Mar 2, 2018 · As a follow-up from our previous post on 5G Core Network (5GC) and system architecture, today I’d like to touch upon the 5G network functions (NFs) that are related to the core network. 5G Core Network. In the second blog post of the series, we discussed the 5G Core, its architecture, and how it stands apart from its predecessors, the role of cloud-native architectures, the concept of network slicing, and how these elements come together to define the 5G Network Architecture. Today’s 5G core is based on 3GPP Release 16 with Releases 17 and 18 already in production that will further optimize functionality for Industry 4. RNC, The RNC refers to (Radio Network Controller), and it controls the 3G sites. Fundamental expectations of 5G technology call for it to deliver massive volumes of data at extremely high data rates over a large number of connections, with high reliability and low latency. This MOOC presents the services and the architecture of 5G networks, the main principles of the new radio interface (NR), data flow management, security and the new Service-Based Architecture (SBA). Their videos on 5G are best. Lower latency brings advancements in other areas, such as faster download speeds. It interworks with the existing core network elements (CN) in terms of transport, application server and database services, while at the same time it supports high throughput and low latency data communications between mobile devices and their applications. 5G can offer low latency under 5 milliseconds, while 4G latency ranges from 60 ms to 98 ms. Use converged policy and charging to capitalize on network slicing and new business models. Aug 16, 2020 · 5G Core Service-Based Architecture (SBA) Service-Based Architecture for core 5G networks is defined in 3GPP Technical Specification (TS) 23. Below, I'll explain the key components and their functionalities in Oct 20, 2021 · The 5G NR architecture comprises next-generation RAN (NG-RAN) and 5G Core Network (5GC) [], both described in the following subsections. Architecture of 5G MOCN. The 5G NR network composed of NG RAN (Next Generation Radio Access Network) and 5GC (5G Core Network). In the second half of the course, we go through the different principles associated with the 5G core network and discuss the various network functions and the call flows. Simplifies core network architecture to implement ondemand configuration of network functions through control and user plane separation, component-based functions, and Open5GCore represents a first 5G core network implementation addressing the needs of 5G testbeds for FOKUS and partner activities. It introduces several key concepts and components compared to previous generations (2G, 3G, and 4G). The center moves the entire body. The 5G System architecture is defined to support data connectivity and services enabling deployments to use techniques such as e. Non-standalone base station NSA enables operators to leverage the investments in their existing 4G network instead of deploying a new core for their 5G infrastructure. Dec 1, 2021 · In 5G network planning, cellular operators have two options to consider when transitioning from 4G legacy core to 5G: non-standalone (NSA) or standalone (SA) architecture. The defails of specific components and functionalities will be described in separate notes. The interface ensures seamless continuity of voice services during inter-RAT handovers between LTE and 5G. The 5G Core network functions, shown in blue-green, somewhat resemble 4G Core’s network elements, providing familiar capabilities for mobility management, routing, security, policy control, charging, and subscriber data management. Our 5G Core architecture is built using cloud-native technology including a Service Based Architecture (SBA). 2 The Service-Driven 5G Architecture End-to-End Network Slicing for Multiple Industries Based on One Physical Infrastructure Reconstructing the RAN with Cloud 3. Jun 5, 2017 · The 5G System (5GS) will have three main components as defined below: 5G Access Network (5G-AN) 5G Core Network (5GC) Use Equipment (UE) This blog is dedicated to describing the main components of the 5G Core Network as defined by the ongoing efforts at 3GPP SA [1]. Nokia’s long history of delivering reliable, high-performance core network technology to customers ensures that confidence underpins the Nokia 5G core. LTE's stateful NEs that store UE state will be replaced with stateless NFs. Feb 27, 2017 · A lot of the attention in 5G development has been focused, rightly, on 5G New Radio (NR). It facilitates interworking between 4G's EPC and 5G's NG core, especially for mobility between LTE-EPC and 5G-NR-5GS. Jan 24, 2023 · 5G Core Network Architecture: Detailed Guide; 5G Interfaces: Understanding X2/Xn, S1/NG, F1 and E1 Interfaces; How 5GC is Different than 4G EPC: 5GC vs EPC; 5G Deployment Options: Know All in Details; 2G to 6G: The Evolution of Mobile Networks; 5G Security: In Detail Points and Enhancements over 4G; GSMA 5G Cybersecurity Knowledge Base This enables a completely cloud-native network architecture to maximize performance, efficiency and flexibility of the 5G network. Increasingly, cloud native architecture will be used with The emergence of cloud forced the architecture of 5G Core to undergo revolutionary changes. 0 Release 15 1 ETSI TS 123 501 V15. The UPF refers to 'User Plane Function'. 5G core network moves from 3/4G dedicated hardware to cloud or virtual machines. Oct 29, 2023 · 4G/5G Network Architecture Comparison Article by Abhijeet Kumar Introduction: The transition from 4G to 5G is not merely an enhancement in speed or bandwidth; it's a revolutionary leap that brings What is 5G Core? 5G Core (5GC) is the heart of a 5G network, controlling data and control plane operations. the PDN is the network the users connect to, whether it is the internet or any other network. The purpose of this note is to share you with overview of 5G corenetwork. 2017 is also described. Current 4G LTE (Long Term Evolution) network is not enough to fulfill arising new requirements because of fundamental problems in Evolved Packet Core (EPC), including centralized routing mechanism. g. Roles of the Network Functions (NFs) as specified in the 3GPP R17 standards are discussed, including the interactions both within the 5GC and between the 5GC and the NG-RAN, the 5GC and the external AF for Service Influencing and the 5GC and the EPC for 4G ↔ 5G Interworking. 2 MCE Cloud-Native New Core Architecture Jan 5, 2024 · 5G security architecture. With LTE vEPC, the first efforts were made towards virtualization. This is as defined in the 3GPP TS 38. This chapter describes the service-based architecture of 5GC as the framework of operation of different network functions. N1 mode is the standalone deployment where the 5G radio connects directly to the 5G core network over the N1 interface to leverage the complete 5G system capabilities. It is also defined by reference Jul 1, 2024 · The key differences between 4G and 5G network architecture include the following areas: Latency. Nokia 5G Core: An evolution not revolution. 5G NR overall architecture is shown in the following figure-2. As a result, this architecture 1 is also known as the 5G core Service-Based Architecture (SBA), The 5G core is a network of interconnected services, as illustrated in the figure below. However, the NSA deployment option is limited in that it can't fully support all the 5G-specific services, such as, URLLC and network slicing. Nov 17, 2023 · The 5G core network architecture is designed to support the advanced capabilities and requirements of 5G wireless communication. 501 — “System Architecture for the 5G System”. Cellular core networks till LTE used specialized telecom protocols running on specialized telecom hardware. Moreover, the concept of Network Slicing is introduced, focusing on the relevant E2E aspects, as well as on the corresponding RAN and Core Network Mar 20, 2023 · Slide 25: This slide exhibits the 5G core network architecture functions. Aug 17, 2023 · Welcome back to our 5G Core blog series. Therefore, promoting 5G core network technology and architecture evolution based on actual business needs will help operators improve return on investment and help industry users better use 5G networks to achieve digital transformation. In addition, the UPF applies the session management related parameters received from the SMF to the PDU 5G Architecture is a change to cloud from dedicated hardware (specialized hardware). OAI 5G CN is designed and implemented in a flexible way which can be easily adapted to fulfill the needs of diversified 5G use-cases. Legacy Core Networks have been deployed using separate hardware for each Network Element. See the diagram, the service-based representation, and the key network functions of 5G core network. 1 The Driving Force Behind Network Architecture Transformation 1. The architecture is based on a flexible and cloud-native design, enabling efficient deployment and scalability. While 4G Core has evolved to 5G Core, it gained some new capabilities and some functions are divided in to more functions but general architecture is Dec 17, 2023 · The 5G Core separates the control plane from the user plane. This allows for better network utilization, reduces network interference, and provides better user experience. Multiple containers are used to execute the same work to ensure Dec 7, 2023 · The 5G transport network architecture is a crucial component of the overall 5G architecture, enabling high-speed, low-latency communication between different elements of the 5G network. See how Cisco can help monetize your 5G network. 300 specification. The paper starts with a discussion about interworking between LTE and 5G then explores Aug 5, 2020 · 5G core network architecture is fundamentally different than the core networks of previous cellular generations. Core Network (CN): The Core Network serves as the central part of the 5G architecture, responsible for handling various network functions, service delivery, and management. Written by the authors who are heavily involved in development of the 5G standards and who wrote the successful book on EPC and 4G May 22, 2024 · Azure Private 5G Core is an Azure cloud service for deploying and managing 5G core network functions on an Azure Stack Edge device, as part of an on-premises private mobile network for enterprises. The NG-RAN includes new generation LTE eNodeB (ng-eNB) and 5G NodeB (gNB), which are responsible for the radio functions, e. Feb 19, 2023 · In this scenario, each operator can deploy its own RAN, but share the common core network infrastructure. The 5G core aggregates data traffic, communicates with UE, delivers essential network services and provides extra layers of security, among other functions. Uses CloudRAN to reconstruct radio access networks (RAN) to provide massive connections of multiple standards and implement on-demand deployment of RAN functions required by 5G. Feb 12, 2024 · The final deployment is a common core that covers LTE, 5G and Wi-Fi. Radio also moves from dedicated hardware BaseBand Units to CloudRAN or OpenRAN. The 3GPP defines a Service-Based Architecture (SBA) in which the control plane functionality and common data repositories of a 5G network are delivered through a set of interconnected Network Functions (NFs), with each NF authorized to Nov 16, 2023 · A growing list of vendors and potential enterprise customers are contemplating how private 5G networks might reshape organizational wireless connectivity in the years to come. 3. 1 The NG-RAN. In 5G SA architecture, the 5G RAN and its New Radio (NR) interface, consisting of gNodeB (gNB) macro cell base stations, is connected to the 5G packet core network and operates as a “standalone Apr 19, 2024 · Alepo’s core network solution + Digital BSS together support the unified management of 4G (EPC, IMS), C-IoT, and non-3GPP networks (such as WiFi). Apr 11, 2019 · This migration mandates tight interoperability between existing 4G and emerging 5G core networks, as almost all providers will have both 4G and 5G networks running concurrently. Take advantage of automation in the 5G standalone core to bring new services to market faster. Apr 23, 2021 · The 5G core (5GC) network architecture differentiates the overall 5G system from the core networks of the previous generation mobile communication systems. The architecture of 5G MOCN is based on the concept of network slicing, which is a key feature of 5G Nov 17, 2023 · The 5G Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is a key component of the 5G network architecture that provides the core network functions for handling data traffic, signaling, and mobility management. Slide 26: This slide depicts the Functional architecture for context and content-aware 5G platforms. security 5G core network with service-based architecture (Mimicloud), a closed-loop negative feedback control architecture. As you may know about LTE, the core network Feb 1, 2022 · 5G Core Architecture part 1 Live Session 1st Feb 2022This session is inspired by session by MPIRICAL YouTube channel. Slide 27: This slide portrays the Heading for the Topics to be discussed next. The 5G Core Network (5GC) consists of several key components: a. The 4G core network, known as Evolved Packet Core (EPC) , is based on a “flat architecture” where few network nodes are involved in handling traffic and protocol conversion is avoided. Jan 1, 2022 · The 5G core network (defined by 3GPP) is a Service-Based Architecture (SBA), whereby the control plane functionality and common data repositories of a 5G network are delivered by way of a set of interconnected Network Functions (NFs), each with authorization to access each other’s services. Open5GCore implements the features necessary for the end-to-end 5G system trials and validation: Implementation of 5G core network: AMF, SMF, AUSF, UDM, NRF, UPF; Integration with the 5G NR using the 5G interfaces [N1, N2, N3], 5G NAS and NG-AP; Implementing control-user plane split with PFCP [N4] SBA Control Plane [HTTP/2, OpenAPI, REST] NR Core Network Architecture / Network Interface. 5G NSA deployment leaning on traditional LTE network and EPC allows for a quick launch of 5G services, but also hinders the realization of 5G' s full potential. 5G Core is a Service-Based Architecture (SBA). This article provides a comprehensive overview of the 5G RAN design guidelines, key design considerations, and functional innovations as identified and May 26, 2023 · Service-Based Architectures provide a modular framework from which common applications can be deployed using components from various sources and suppliers. In EPC archi-tecture the control plane functions communicate with each other via the direct Jul 7, 2017 · The emergence of new service scenarios driven by user needs beyond 2020 generates new mobile network requirements. 9 main features are: Fundamental 5G core network functionality (AMF, SMF, AUSF, UDM, NRF, UPF) Implementation of service-based Architecture (HTTP/2 OpenAPI, REST) Discover how the NG-RAN architecture is, and isnt, ready for the challenges introduced by 5G 5G Radio Access Network Architecture: The Dark Side of 5G explores foundational and advanced topics in Radio Access Network (RAN) architecture and why a re-thinking of that architecture is necessary to support new 5G requirements. In addition, a 5G core through the public cloud reduces operating costs and provides agility as it can respond immediately to service changes. But to offer 5G services a new system architecture and core network is also needed. Dec 14, 2023 · The 5G Standalone (SA) Core Network Architecture is designed to provide enhanced capabilities and support new use cases compared to previous generations of mobile networks. The goal of the OAI-5G Core Network (CN) project group is to provide a 3GPP-Compliant 5G Standalone (SA) CN implementation with a rich feature set. Each NF exposes one or more services. 5G Core Network Design Principle Mar 26, 2021 · 5G Core SBA along with IMS Core and MEC System. The new 5G core, as defined by 3GPP, utilizes Jul 27, 2020 · Virtualised and Disaggregated 5G vRAN Architecture Overview : Futureproof vRAN architecture for Next Generation 5G networks. Apr 29, 2021 · The Service Based architecture represents a move towards a cloud implementation of the Core Network. 1. Adding 5G to existing LTE macro sites will require at least 10Gbps backhaul to support features like massive MIMO and wider channel bandwidths. The N26 interface is an inter-Core Network interface between the 4G LTE's MME and the 5G core's 5GS AMF. Nov 23, 2023 · The 5G Standalone (SA) architecture represents a fully independent and native 5G network architecture, as opposed to the Non-Standalone (NSA) architecture, which relies on the existing 4G infrastructure. The 5G core network, which provides coordination between different parts of the access network and connectivity to the internet, is a service-based architecture (SBA) built around cloud-based technologies and provides authentication, security and session management, as well as other functions and services. In this regard, 5G mobile network architecture needs to be redesigned for emerging Jan 26, 2023 · One of the key differences between 5G and its predecessor, 4G, is the core network architecture. But current 4G LTE (Long Term Evolution) network is not enough to fulfill arising new requirements because of fundamental problems in Evolved Packet Core (EPC), including centralized routing mechanism. Some of in 5G Core (5GC) network architecture implementation doesn't exactly follow the network evolution upgrade path as previously followed by 2G, 3G, and 4G networks and this is what makes 5G Architecture very different from its predecessors. Introduction: 3GPP introduced 5G SA core network architecture in release 15. In 5G, Network Management is envisioned to be Software-driven, and Network functions & resources are sensible option for a fast 5G deployment from a cost perspective since it leverages legacy LTE networks. 1 Multi-Connectivity Is Key to High Speed and Reliability 3. A foundation supported by SDN and NFV means that the 5G architecture will boast cloud-native access, transport, and core networks — enabling diversified 5G services and key technologies such as Nov 22, 2021 · The fully end-to-end 5G network deployments are called standalone 5G (5G SA), requiring a dedicated 5G core network. As shown, NG-RAN composed of gNBs The UPF is the only network function from the 5G core network that works in the user plane. Jan 19, 2017 · For each use case user plane packets should traverse a different sequence of network service functions. 0 (2018-09) Reference RTS/TSGS-0223501vf30 Keywords 5G ETSI 650 Route des Lucioles Jan 24, 2019 · In this video we discuss four focus areas: PDU Sessions and QoS Flows, Core Network Architecture and Components, Network Functions Virtualization and finally Apr 1, 2021 · The 5G core (5GC) network architecture differentiates the overall 5G system from the core networks of the previous generation mobile communication systems. In recent years, operators have been deploying 5G technology on commercial mobile networks. The 5G core network architecture is based on a service-based model, utilizing cloud-native and virtualized network functions. Without 5GC, fully-fledged NR services cannot be obtained. To comply with strict performance requirements for the 5G networks, the optimal deployment can be done by relying on increased intelligence, flexibility, and automation in the Feb 9, 2024 · Various cloud native 5G SA core aspects include network planning, deployment, software upgrades, network monitoring, hardware and platform upgrades. Let me show you the relatively tremendous changes in the 5G core network architecture. The figure below depicts the 5GC network architecture with some of its main network functions (NFs) associated to the packet core and user data management domains. 5G NR (New Radio) architecture as per 3GPP document published in dec. Here's a technical overview of the 5G SA architecture: Core Network (CN): The core network is a key component of the 5G SA architecture. 5G core architecture is significantly modified from the 4G architecture -- it splits, merges and adds core functions to better separate the control and data planes It covers functions and locations of these 5G NR interfaces used between 5G RAN and 5GC. 2 5G Core (5GC) Service-Based Architecture A major change in the 5G Core (5GC) architecture compared to EPC and the previ-ous generations is the introduction of the service-based architecture. This page describes 5G network architecture with its elements. network elements. Feb 14, 2020 · Software-Based and Service-Oriented 5G Core Network Architecture. N1 mode refers to the 5G standalone architecture where the 5G core network connects directly to the 5G radio access network, without involvement of the 4G EPC core. 5GC is the new 3GPP standard for core networks defining how the core network should evolve to support the needs of 5G New Radio (NR) and the advanced use cases enabled by it. NFs will be virtualized in the cloud and implemented using microservices and containers. Each service offers one or more operations, implemented as RESTful APIs over HTTPS. Microservices and CNFs provide better resource efficiency, resiliency and higher availability. The underlying drivers behind 5G Core innovation are SBA, Stateless, Network Slicing and Common Core. 5G is designed to serve as the wireless network technology for IoT and should have countless other uses, including massive arrays of sensing devices, ultrahigh-volume data Nov 13, 2022 · Learn about the 5G network architecture, its features, functions, and differences from 4G. The EPC for 5G builds upon the architecture used in previous generations, such as 4G LTE, but it introduces new elements and capabilities to meet the Aug 17, 2023 · 5G Network Architecture: What You Need to Know. 5G Core Network Architecture Feb 15, 2024 · By adopting the reference architecture, CSPs can build secure, scalable, and performant 5G core networks that deliver unparalleled user experiences and pave the way for future innovation. The 5G architecture consists of all RANs, aggregator, IP network, nanocore etc. 2 Driving Forces This page describes 5G network architecture with its elements. Nov 12, 2019 · Figure 4: 4G Architecture 5G Core Network. This paper in the Cisco® 5G Strategy Series includes an overview of general architectural design principles for 5G; a look at the evolution of flexible mobile services; and descriptions of service function chaining, the 5G core architecture, network transport protocols, and fixed-mobile convergence (FMC) in a 5G network. The control plane is a designed as a set of Network Functions (NFs). The 5G architecture is defined as service-based, where network functions expose services through interfaces like Namf, Nsmf, and Nnef. 5G was built from the ground up, with network functions divided by service. The GPRS network transfers data transparently between the user equipment (UE), and the packet data network (PDN). 5G Core Networks: Powering Digitalization provides an overview of the 5G Core network architecture, as well as giving descriptions of cloud technologies and the key concepts in the 3GPP rel-15/16 specifications. The function of the UPF is that it performs inter-networking between the 5G network, and the data network. Define your 5G requirements The PDN refers to (Public Data Network). The 5G Core network architecture is based on existing wired and wireless access networks. 4 5G CORE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE The 5G core network architecture standardised by 3GPP, enables support for increased throughput demand, reduced latency and increased reliability as per requirements of various applications and services that 5G must support. This paper explores the 3GPP 5G network architecture from release 15 phase 1 and how this will evolve with the introduction of next generation core (NGC) network. Now in the 5G era, a wide variety of new technologies and services is being introduced. 1 We start with an overview of the architecture, followed by a description of the key individual network functions, before finally providing an example of 5G interworking with LTE. 5G Core Network(5GC) holds a key role in realizing the full potential of 5G services. Oct 28, 2021 · Telco service providers could benefit from adaptable, on-demand, and pay-as-they-consume infrastructure services—from 5G Core (5GC), to enterprise/consumer network edge, and even towards 5G radio access network (RAN)—that address diverse use cases while minimizing CapEx and OpEx. As we’ll see, some of them look very similar to the corresponding functions in the previous generations’ core networks (CN). Here's a technical explanation of the key components and their functions: 1. The 3 rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is currently running a study for such new 5G core network architecture [2, 3]. We’re scratching the surface of the transformative potential of the OCI-F5 collaboration and looking forward to providing more innovation. Among the handful of 5G core vendors providing end-to-end solutions, Alepo’s vast experience in digital transformation of telecom businesses helps ensure service providers can evolve their operations, upgrade to 5G without disruption, and shift Nov 15, 2016 · While there is clarity on the wide range of applications that are to be supported by 5G cellular communications, and standardization of 5G has now started in 3GPP, there is no conclusion yet on the detailed design of the overall 5G RAN. 5G can operate in both standalone and non-standalone modes with an EPC or NGC core. These include the Authentication Server Function, Access and Mobility Management Function, and others. " Here are some The course starts with an introduction to 5G Core Networks. Open5GCore Rel. Network Function Virtualization ETSI 3GPP TS 23. User Equipment (UE): * The UE represents the end-user device, such as a smartphone, It is expected that the emergence of new service scenarios driven by user needs beyond 2020 will be different from today. A 5G core network architecture should offer an infrastructure to support flexibility of organizing such service chains. The 5G core network is often referred to as the "5G Core" or "5GC. 1 Progress 1. 5G Core Networks present the opportunity to build a more a capable network and offer innovative services in a more cost efficient way. Source: Ivezic 2020. 5G Core Objectives Apr 5, 2024 · Next, the 5G Core Network is presented, explaining the role of the included Network Functions, the Service-Based Architecture and the required Management and Orchestration Framework (MANO). The distinguished engineer and editor Sasha Sirotkin has included Jun 8, 2022 · Description of 5G Core Network Architecture. Slide 28: This slide talks about the three frequency bands at the core of 5G networks. xm pv tw xk hv sm ab gz is xo